Extensive Reading Why And How English Language Essay

Extensive Reading Why And How English Language Essay An extensive reading program was established at the British Council Language Center in Sanaa, Yemen. An elementary level class of government employees (age range 17-42) was exposed to a regime of graded readers, which was integrated into normal classroom teaching. Students followed a class reader, had access to a class library of graded readers, and had classes in the British Council library, which gave them access to a collection of 2000 titles. Questionnaires were used to examine students reading interests, habits and attitudes, both prior to, and following the program. The class library contained 141 titles in the published readers of some major publishers (see inventory of titles in Bell, 1994). Familiar titles (e.g. popular Arab folk tales) were selected for both the class readers and the class library, so as to motivate the students to read. These titles proved very popular, as did the practice of reading aloud to the class. Students reading was carefully monitored; formal and informal records being kept both by the researcher, and by the students themselves. Reading diaries and book reports were used, together with a card file system to document the program and record both the titles read and students written comments on the books. A wall chart acted as a focal point for in-class reading, discussion and exchange of titles. Reader interviews were conducted throughout the program, which ran for a period of six months over the course of two semesters. Students became actively involved in running the class library; tables were arranged and titles displayed attractively during the periods set aside for the reading program. Students were taken into the main British Council library for one lesson a week, during which they participated in controlled twenty-minute sessions of USSR 1 (cf. Davis, 1995). With reference to research evidence, we now turn to the role of extensive reading programs in fostering learners progress in reading development and improvement. The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning 1. It can provide comprehensible input In his 1982 book, Krashen argues that extensive reading will lead to language acquisition, provided that certain preconditions are met. These include adequate exposure to the language, interesting material, and a relaxed, tension-free learning environment. Elley and Manghubai (1983:55) warn that exposure to the second language is normally planned, restricted, gradual and largely artificial. The reading program provided in Yemen, and the choice of graded readers in particular, was intended to offer conditions in keeping with Krashens model. 2. It can enhance learners general language competence Grabe (1991:391) and Paran (1996:30) have emphasized the importance of extensive reading in providing learners with practice in automaticity of word recognition and decoding the symbols on the printed page (often called bottom-up processing). The book flood project in Fiji (Elley Manghubai: op cit.), in which Fijian school children were provided with high-interest storybooks, revealed significant post treatment gains in word recognition and reading comprehension after the first year, and wider gains in oral and written skills after two years. 3. It increases the students exposure to the language The quality of exposure to language that learners receive is seen as important to their potential to acquire new forms from the input. Elley views provision of large quantities of reading material to children as fundamental to reducing the exposure gap between L1 learners and L2 learners. He reviews a number of studies with children between six and twelve years of age, in which subjects showed rapid growth in language development compared with learners in regular language programs . There was a spread of effect from reading competence to other language skills writing, speaking and control over syntax, (Elley 1991:404). 4. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary Nagy Herman (1987) claimed that children between grades three and twelve (US grade levels) learn up to 3000 words a year. It is thought that only a small percentage of such learning is due to direct vocabulary instruction, the remainder being due to acquisition of words from reading. This suggests that traditional approaches to the teaching of vocabulary, in which the number of new words taught in each class was carefully controlled (words often being presented in related sets), is much less effective in promoting vocabulary growth than simply getting students to spend time on silent reading of interesting books. 5. It can lead to improvement in writing Stotsky (1983) and Krashen (1984) reviewed a number of L1 studies that appear to show the positive effect of reading on subjects writing skills, indicating that students who are prolific readers in their pre-college years become better writers when they enter college. L2 studies by Hafiz Tudor (1989) in the UK and Pakistan, and Robb Susser (1989) in Japan, revealed more significant improvement in subjects written work than in other language skills. These results again support the case for an input-based, acquisition-oriented reading program based on extensive reading as an effective means of fostering improvements in students writing. 6. It can motivate learners to read Reading material selected for extensive reading programs should address students needs, tastes and interests, so as to energize and motivate them to read the books. In the Yemen, this was achieved through the use of familiar material and popular titles reflecting the local culture (e.g.. Aladdin and His Lamp). Bell Campbell (1996, 1997) explore the issue in a South East Asian context, presenting various ways to motivate learners to read and explaining the role of extensive reading and regular use of libraries in advancing the reading habit . 7. It can consolidate previously learned language Extensive reading of high-interest material for both children and adults offers the potential for reinforcing and recombining language learned in the classroom. Graded readers have a controlled grammatical and lexical load, and provide regular and sufficient repetition of new language forms (Wodinsky Nation 1988).Therefore, students automatically receive the necessary reinforcement and recycling of language required to ensure that new input is retained and made available for spoken and written production. 8. It helps to build confidence with extended texts Much classroom reading work has traditionally focused on the exploitation of shorts texts, either for presenting lexical and grammatical points or for providing students with limited practice in various reading skills and strategies. However, a large number of students in the EFL/ESL world require reading for academic purposes, and therefore need training in study skills and strategies for reading longer texts and books. Kembo (1993) points to the value of extensive reading in developing students confidence and ability in facing these longer texts. 9. It encourages the exploitation of textual redundancy Insights from cognitive psychology have informed our understanding of the way the brain functions in reading. It is now generally understood that slow, word-by-word reading, which is common in classrooms, impedes comprehension by transferring an excess of visual signals to the brain. This leads to overload because only a fraction of these signals need to be processed for the reader to successfully interpret the message. Kalb (1986) refers to redundancy as an important means of processing, and to extensive reading as the means of recognizing and dealing with redundant elements in texts. 10. It facilitates the development of prediction skills One of the currently accepted perspectives on the reading process is that it involves the exploitation of background knowledge. Such knowledge is seen as providing a platform for readers to predict the content of a text on the basis of a pre-existing schema. When students read, these schema are activated and help the reader to decode and interpret the message beyond the printed words. These processes presuppose that readers predict, sample, hypothesize and reorganize their understanding of the message as it unfolds while reading (Nunan 1991: 65-66). Practical Advice on Running Extensive Reading Programs 1. Maximize Learner Involvement A number of logistical hurdles have to be overcome in order to make an extensive reading program effective. Books need to be transported, displayed and collected at the end of each reading session. Considerable paperwork is required to document the card file system, reading records, inventories, book reports and in maintaining and updating lists of titles. Students should therefore be encouraged to take an active role in the management and administration of the reading program. In the Yemen program, students gained a strong sense of ownership through running the reading resources in an efficient, coordinated and organized manner. 2. The Reader Interview Regular conferencing between teacher and student played a key role in motivating students in the Yemen to read the books. This enabled effective monitoring of individual progress and provided opportunities for the teacher to encourage students to read widely, show interest in the books being read, and to guide students in their choice of titles. By demonstrating commitment in their own reading, teachers can foster positive attitudes to reading, in which it is no longer viewed as tedious, demanding, hard work, but as a pleasurable part of their learning. 3. Read Aloud to the Class In the Yemen study, reader interviews conducted with students revealed the popularity of occasions when the teacher read aloud to the class. The model of pronunciation provided acted as a great motivator, encouraging many students to participate in classroom reading. Students gained confidence in silent reading because they were able to verbalize sounds they previously could could not recognize. This resulted in wider reading by some of the weaker readers in the class. Often thought of as bad practice, reading aloud should play a full part in motivating the emerging reader to overcome the fear of decoding words in an unfamiliar script. 4. Student Presentations Short presentations on books read played an absolutely crucial role in the program and students frequently commented on the value of oral work in class for exchanging information about the books. The reader interviews revealed that most of the book choices made by students resulted from recommendations made by friends and not by the teacher. This demonstrates that given the right preparation, encouragement, sense of ownership and belonging, an extensive reading program will achieve a direction and momentum governed by the learners themselves; a large step in the promotion of student independence and autonomy. 5. Written Work Based on the Reading Effective reading will lead to the shaping of the readers thoughts, which naturally leads many learners to respond in writing with varying degrees of fluency. Elementary level students can be asked simply to write short phrases expressing what they most enjoyed about a book they read, or to record questions they wish to ask the teacher or other students in class. With intermediate students, book reports may be used, with sections for questions, new vocabulary, and for recording the main characters and events. At this level, summary writing is also a valuable practice because it allows learners to assert full control, both of the main factual or fictional content of a book, and of the grammar and vocabulary used to express it. Advanced students can be asked to write compositions, which, by definition, are linguistically more demanding written responses to the reading material. 6. Use Audio Material in the Reading Program The use of audio recordings of books read aloud and of graded readers on cassette proved very popular with the students in Yemen, and is advocated for wide application. Listening material provided the learners with a model of correct pronunciation which aided word recognition, and exposed students to different accents, speech rhythms and cadences. Student confidence in their ability to produce natural speech patterns and to read along with the voice of a recorded speaker is central to maintaining their motivation to master the language as a medium for talking about their reading. 7. Avoid the Use of Tests Extensive reading programs should be without the pressures of testing or marks (Davis 1995:329). The use of tests runs contrary to the objective of creating stress-free conditions for pleasure reading because it invokes images of rote learning, vocabulary lists, memorization and homework. Extensive reading done at home should be under the learners control and not an obligation imposed by the teacher. By their very nature, tests impose a rigor on the learning process, which the average student will never equate with pleasure. 8. Discourage the Over-Use of Dictionaries While dictionaries certainly have a place in the teaching of reading, it is probably best located in intensive reading lessons, where detailed study of the lexical content of texts is appropriate. If learners turn to the dictionary every time they come across an unfamiliar word, they will focus only on the language itself, and not on the message conveyed. This habit will result in slow, inefficient reading and destroy the pleasure that reading novels and other literature are intended to provide. Summarizing comments on the extensive reading done by his subjects, Pickard (1996:155) notes that Use of the dictionary was sparing, with the main focus on meaning. 9. Monitor the Students Reading In order to run an extensive reading program successfully, effective monitoring is required, both to administer the resources efficiently, and to trace students developing reading habits and interests. In the Yemen program, a card file system was used to record titles and the dates the books were borrowed and returned. Input from the monitoring process helps us to record students progress, maintain and update an inventory of titles, and locate and select new titles for the class library. It therefore serves both the individual needs of the reader and the logistical task of managing the reading resources. 10. Maintain the Entertainment This is perhaps the most important aspect of the program to emphasize. Teachers need to invest time and energy in entertaining the participants by making use of multimedia sources to promote the books (e.g. video, audio, CD ROM, film, etc.). They should also exploit the power of anecdote by telling the students about interesting titles, taking them out to see plays based on books, exploiting posters, leaflets, library resources, and even inviting visiting speakers to give a talk in class on a book they have read recently. In these ways, teachers can maintain student motivation to read and secure their full engagement in the enjoyment the program provides. Conclusion Tsangs (1996) study, carried out in Hong Kong secondary schools, provided further persuasive evidence of the effectiveness of extensive reading in fostering learners language development. He found that the reading program was significantly more effective than the writing program (1996:225) . Extensive reading programs can provide very effective platforms for promoting reading improvement and development from elementary levels upwards. Although they do require a significant investment in time, energy and resources on the part of those charged with managing the materials, the benefits in terms of language and skills development for the participating learners far outweigh the modest sacrifices required. If such programs receive institutional support and can be integrated into the curriculum so that they become agreed school policy, as suggested in Davis (1995), they will likely be more readily and widely adopted, particularly in countries where material and financial resources are adequ ate. Notes 1. USSR is uninterrupted sustained silent reading.

The Importance of Securing equipmen Essay

The ability to be accountable of army equipment is a task given to all Service members. It starts when we first enter basic training. We receive our first issued items from CIF in order to complete all of our task during basic training. We are responsible to inventory and maintain our gear until we are finished with basic training. It is expected that we turn in item that were received in a clean and serviceable condition. After Basic training we move on to AIT and later to our first Unit. As we progress with our military career we become responsible for more gear. Our Platoon leaders and commanders entrust us with more sensitive as we sign not just for our personal gear. We sign for radios, vehicle, Blue Force Trackers and many other items that cannot fall into the hands of the enemy. The loss of any equipment is costly, not only does it cost money but it take time away from the mission while you are waiting for much needed gear. The inability to maintain your equipment potential causes a mission failure or missing a movement. The best method to keep equipment secure is to always have it on your person. The problem with this method is it’s not always possible. Caring around everything would be a very tedious and inefficient process. The next best method is to keep your equipment under lock and key. Keeping that in mind the equipment should be left in a place where security is in place to guard those items. Of course some item will need different levels of security such as weapons. The loss of any equipment can lead to a loss in operational security. You don’t want information much less equipment to fall into enemy hands. This could potentially lead to a loss of life.

Sample Business Report

The ability to conduct a thorough analysis regarding the successfulness of an enterprise’s activity is a very significant part of both entrepreneurship and management studies, which, in turn, can be resembled in the sample business report. The difficulty of the task at hand may differ from the size of the business and the complexity of the provided services and production. In any case, a combination of common sense and rationality would allow forming a report that will benefit the company with its findings. A good sample business report is one that provides not only an overview of the company’s activity but leads up to the necessary steps that should be taken in order to improve the company’s overall gains and efficiency. Before writing the actual business report, one should understand the structure of such report and its main purpose. A business report is a document that includes information about a company’s business activities over a fixed time period. This information usually includes the company’s both successes and failures, productivity, efficiency, market placement, as a well as a financial review. Similarly to most written papers, a business report consists of a three-part structure: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The introduction should provide a short background overview on the company’s business. The body should include the main information. The conclusion should feature the necessary steps required to increase profit and solve any issues discussed in the body. The content of a business report is surely its key part. It should not only provide an exhaustive overview of the financial gains and losses of the company, its productivity, and efficiency, but it should also become a valuable tool for the companys management representatives that would ensure the company’s prosperous future. One of the most efficient ways to provide such a report is to conduct a SWOT analysis. Such analysis concerns outlying the company’s: (S) Strengths – the advantages and achievements of the company; (W) Weaknesses – the disadvantages and weak sides; (O) Opportunities – the possibilities to expand and improve business; (T) Threats – the difficulties and obstacles; A short example of a business report that features such an analysis is provided below: The Mocka Kola company has been providing fuzzy drinks in the food industry for decades and, thus, has a well-established distribution network and logistics management (Strength). However, the company has recently faced financial losses due to insufficiency in production and technological stagnation (Weakness). In order to cope with these difficulties, the company should reconsider its approaches to the market and update its production line with new technologies. This would allow the company to expand its business and reach an optimal efficiency of production (Opportunities). However, entering the global market undermines that the company will face increased competitiveness from other international companies, and, therefore, will be forced to adapt to a new global market environment (Threats). Overall, the company has been successful in the recent years; however, it should consider updating its production and expanding its business in order to secure its future success.

What does happiness mean According to the Webster...

What does happiness mean? According to the Webster Dictionary, happiness is defined as obsolete, good fortune, prosperity, a state of well-being and contentment, joy, a pleasurable or satisfying experience. Happiness is an endless path in the life. Everyone has a different opinion about what it means to them. People have always been attracted to the issue of what makes humans happy. Happiness isn’t something you just get; it has to come from within. It can occur through many ways in our everyday lives. In reading â€Å"The Bet† by Anton Chekhov’s, are the men really happy, or just content with the path they have taken in their lives? Aristotle tells us that whatever makes us happy we ought to do, and whatever doesn’t make us happy we ought to†¦show more content†¦I am sorry for you† (Chekhov 212). Getting close to the fifteen year mark, the banker gets nervous because he knows he doesn’t have the money to cover his end of the bet. Hav ing lost his fortunes, he believes his only chance of surviving in the world is to hold on to as much money as he can. He decides to sneak into the prison and kill the lawyer. On the other hand, the lawyer after reading and studying all kinds of books realizes that the money would not make him happy anymore. He just threw away almost fifteen years of his life for nothing. He has some sort of epiphany; he writes a letter stating he’s going to forfeit the bet just hours before the time is up. The lawyer leaves the prison and leaves the letter in his cell. When the banker arrives to kill the lawyer, the banker sees the letter, reads it and is relieved that he doesn’t have to pay the money. Not only does he read the letter but takes it and puts it in a safe as security in case someone questions the bet. Aristotle tells us that whatever makes us happy we ought to do, and whatever doesn’t make us happy we ought to avoid. Chekov presents us with two gentlemen, which one follows Aristotle’s theory of happiness? Even though it took some time, I believe the lawyer eventually realized the true meaning of happiness. No amount of money could have made him happy. Just like the saying money isn’tShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 PagesPerspectives John McAuley, Joanne Duberley and Phil Johnson . This book is, to my knowledge, the most comprehensive and reliable guide to organisational theory currently available. What is needed is a text that will give a good idea of the breadth and complexity of this important subject, and this is precisely what McAuley, Duberley and Johnson have provided. They have done some sterling service in bringing together the very diverse strands of work that today qualify as constituting the subjectRead MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 PagesThe Importance of Management. . . . . . . . . . . . What Is Management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Who Are Managers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Do Managers Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managerial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managerial Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Resources Do Managers Use? . . . . . . . . . What Skills Are Needed by Today’s Managers? . What Are the Differences in Managing in For-Profit a nd Not-for-ProfitRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesCourier/Kendallville. This book is printed on acid free paper. Copyright  © 2010, 2007, 2005, 2002 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through paymentRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 Pagesacid-free paper. Copyright  © 2009, 2006, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995, 1992, 1989, 1986, 1981, 1976 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through